The Exploitation of Miss Mary

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Miss Mary, a 96 year old woman, was similar to most elders in this country fearing the restrictions which are inherent in nursing home living.  Living independently for most of her life she was eventually placed in a nursing home but hated it, also fearing she would be forgotten once left there.  So, when she was offered the opportunity to move in with her grandson, Billy, and his wife, Susan, she jumped on it determined to remain out of a nursing home for the remainder of her life.  To ease the burden placed on Billy and Susan, Mary used part of her Social Security checks to pay rent in addition to fulfilling the increasing demands placed on her to cook and clean the couple’s home for them. 

 

Unfortunately, Mary’s efforts were rewarded with five years of indentured servitude, financial exploitation, neglect, and ultimately the severe physical abuse and sexual assault which lead to intervention my authorities.  The increasing capabilities of forensic science not only ensured Mary’s offender was prosecuted and charged but is also acting as the catalyst in solving criminal cases for the most vulnerable population in this society.

 

The first recorded use of forensic science as we now understand it dates back to the 700s as Chinese officials used fingerprint analysis to identify documents and clay sculptures.  Throughout the centuries this science has changed and advanced dramatically as technology has become available, making it a more reliable and valid tool for investigators.  To date, fingerprint analysis is one of the most effective methods for individualization in any criminal case.

 

There is not much recorded use of forensic science from that period until the 1800’s.  However, the 1800’s witnessed a great deal of advancement in forensic science capabilities.  This millennium was witness to the first recorded use of questioned document analysis, the development of tests for the presence of blood in a forensic context, reliable techniques for bullet comparison, the first use of toxicology in a jury trial, the development of the first crystal test for hemoglobin using hemin crystals, the development of a presumptive test for blood, the first recorded use of fingerprints to solve a crime, and the invention of the first microscope with a comparison bridge for use in forensic science.  Perhaps most important in the era, though, was the first use of photography for the identification of criminals and documentation of evidence and crime scenes (Division of State Police, n.d.).  All of these advancements laid the groundwork for forensic science as it is currently utilized in criminal investigations including evidence detection, collection, and analysis.  Implementing photography for documentation of evidence is paramount in all crime scene investigations for several reasons.  Topping this list, though, is the use of photographic documentation used for validation during the criminal trial and the fact that this documentation is one of very few methods available to capture the crime scene exactly as it was discovered for investigators to reconstruct later. 

 

In the case of Miss Mary, development of presumptive and confirmatory tests for human blood was necessary for forensic investigators to locate and identify blood stains left behind by Mary as she endured five hours of abuse at the hands of her grandson.  These tests provide a scientific method to exclude blood stains from any other source as they compare findings to the story Mary told in attempting to reconstruct the actions which took place that night.  Fingerprint analysis was also important for this case to exclude the possibility that a third party was present as well as verifying the presence of both Mary and Billy’s fingerprints throughout the areas of the home and outside where the victimization took place. 

 

The following millennia did not slack in forensic advancement, though, as it was witness to the first university courses dedicated to teaching forensic science. These courses enabled policing agencies to form a team of dedicated employees educated in this science whose only job is to collect, analyze, and interpret evidence from a crime scene and termed this team forensic scientists. Additionally, almost every year of the 1900’s produced at least one advancement in the field of forensic science.  These includes, but are not limited to, establishment of the popular practice of using the comparison microscope for bullet comparison in the 1920s, development of the absorption-inhibition ABO blood typing technique in 1931, invention of the first interference contrast microscope in 1935 by Dutch physicist Frits Zernik in the 1950’s, development of the chemi-luminescent reagent luminol as a presumptive test for blood, voiceprint identification, the Breathalyzer, the heated headspace sampling technique, development of the scanning electron microscope with electron dispersive X-ray technology, identification of the polymorphic nature of red cells, enactment of the Federal Rules of Evidence (1975), evaluation of the gas chromatograph and the mass spectrometer for forensic purposes, and development of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) technique for clinical and forensic applications (Division of State Police, n.d.).  Many of these advancements lead to the eventual discovery and utilization of DNA identification and profiling in criminal cases.  This practice also caused the requirements currently adhered to in all forensic labs regarding DNA certification, accreditation, standardization, and quality control guidelines for the forensic science community as a whole.  DNA analysis is one of the most vital pieces of evidence investigators could produce in Miss Mary’s case.  The repeated instances of rape, sexual molestation, and even the intimate extremity of abuse she was subjected to that evening would have made it very difficult for Billy to have prevented some identifying piece of himself on her body in places it did not belong.  DNA analysis has the ability to identify the contributor through analysis completed by a comparison microscope.  The invention of luminol assists investigators in identifying all locations of human blood more conveniently which is especially useful in a case such as this where blood is spread throughout the entire home as well as outside of it.  Investigators must be careful not to destroy the composition of the blood with this chemical, though, making DNA profiling impossible.

 

Upon arrival at the home officers would not need a warrant to gain entrance based on the exigent circumstance regarding immediate danger to Miss Mary’s life if Billy awoke to find police at the door.  Her statements to the 911 operator made it clear that the other person in the home was a physical danger to her as she referred to him as a ‘maniac’.  After clearing the scene of danger to officers, the public, and all others, the initial response from a crime scene investigator is to relocate Mary to a hospital for medical care as well as evidence collection.  One investigator would travel with and stay at Mary’s side to ensure her safety, take her statement when she is ready, and oversee all evidence collection by hospital staff as well as other investigators.  Simultaneously, investigators would process the crime scene.  Despite the fact that Mary is only one of three people with standing over the premises, no search warrant is needed because Billy’s wife Susan creates a serious threat to destruction of evidence.  The District Attorney’s office should be notified for involvement immediately, though, to be sure no violations to any Fourth Amendment rights take place during the investigation.  Upon securing the home as well as the property surrounding it, the lead investigator maps a safe path to walk through and conduct a survey during which time they will take notes indicating all possible evidence, prioritizing evidence collection, and to capture initial photographs of the scene based on inherent senses such as sight, sound, and smell.  Photographs and video recordings of the scene upon arrival are vital.  This is the only opportunity an investigator has to document the scene in its purest form, prior to any interference by investigators, creating a valuable reference for reconstruction later as well as in the courtroom. Another purpose for this walk-through is to develop the most efficient and effective evidence collection strategy.  After dividing the scene into quadrant, investigators will carefully comb through their designated area to identify, record, and collect any pertinent evidence related to the crime.

Despite the fact that the crime was committed in and around the home, this is not the only location where evidence must be collected for analysis.  While “evidence may be gathered from a number of sources, including the scene of the offence, the suspect, and witnesses, great emphasis has been placed on that which is obtained from the body of the woman who has been assaulted” (Mulla, 2008).  Permission from the victim is required to prevent violation of their Fourth Amendment rights.  This type of evidence cannot be subpoenaed through a judge issued warrant.  This fact makes it apparent that officers should be careful to send victims, such as those that have suffered as Mary had, to hospitals which employ SANE nurses.  Victims of sexual assault, especially those victimized by people they trust, are reluctant to speak with law enforcement immediately.  Additionally, law enforcement officers are not trained to collect biological evidence from living, human bodies in such a case.  SANE nurses are the best option for any sexual assault case because they are trained to conduct the physical examinations a sexual assault victim needs, effectively collect and preserve evidence from the victim, and provide the emotional support these victims require,  These steps increase the chances the victim will press charges, evidence will be collected prior to degradation, evidence collected will remain pure without breaking the chain of custody so it will be admissible in court, and they help begin the process of restoring the sense of safety and security which was taken from the victim during the assault.

 

Now that the scene has been properly and thoroughly documented with important evidence locations notated, evidence collection can begin.  Investigators will first collect the evidence most fragile or easy to lose.  In the case of Miss Mary, there are two locations to collect evidence from.  In the home and the surrounding areas investigators should expect to collect blood pattern evidence.  “The best overall presumptive blood test [is] luminol. It [has] the greatest sensitivity and specificity, and it [does] not destroy the DNA” (Tobe, et al, 2007).  Therefore, investigators would lightly spray luminol over the areas in the home as well as the path outside that Mary referred to then illuminating the area with a black light in efforts to identify human blood evidence.  The best method for collecting blood pattern evidence is through photograph documentation with a special emphasis on collecting representative samples of the "peripheral" bloodstains.  However, blood should also be collected for DNA analysis.  Blood and other biological evidence, such as semen, can be collected and stored in a clean, unused plastic container that is not sealed if it is to be transported to the lab within two hours or less.  Whether investigators use tape lifting, scraping, cutting, or moistening threads depends of the amount of sample as well as the surface the evidence is being collected from.  Prior to submission, though, investigators should examine the sample and remove any apparent trace evidence to package separately.  Upon arrival at the lab, any wet evidence must be dried then repackaged in a new container.  Each sample should be packaged separately with a label applied to document the person who collected it, the date and time it was collected, descriptions of where the evidence was found, a complete description of the evidence in the package, the case number, a unique evidence identification number, and space for those handling the evidence to track the chain of evidence.  In this case, all bed sheets from Mary’s as well as Billy’s bed should be collected to examine for blood and semen because the allegations of being raped repeatedly by Mary state these crimes took place in her.  If wet stains are located, the location should be indicated with a piece of tape, allowed to air dry and then package by folding the edges toward the center and placed in a paper bag for submission to the lab.  Blood pattern stain analysis is most effective in crimes where the victim and assailant were in close proximity to each other.  Mary claims Billy never let her leave his side despite her many attempts to find a way to reach out for help so this case is a prime example of how blood stains from the home, yard, deck, and Billy’s clothing can help solve a criminal case.  Blood pattern specialists would be called in to analyze the photographs in attempts to reconstruct the movements of both the assailant and the victim during the crime.  After typing the blood patterns through sample collections, these patterns can be identified through unique numbers and analyzed to determine the most likely course of action from both parties that took place to create that specific pattern.  This is then returned to the submitting party for use in reconstructing the crime scene.  This type of evidence is also very helpful in excluding such stories as the one Billy told about how Mary received the bruises on her arms.  If he had, in fact, only helped her up from a fall off the deck then blood patterns would show no medium velocity splatter and there would be no over-lapping trails of blood on the premises.  These over-laps indicate the victim was brought back and forth throughout the home adding even more weight to Mary recounting of the events.

 

Just as important in this case is collection of biological and trace evidence from Mary’s body.  This is the most important identification evidence that could be collected in this case.  The severe violence involved in the sexual assaults combined with the degradation of Billy rubbing his penis in Mary’s face while she urinated may have left semen or pubic hairs on Mary’s vaginal area or facial area.  Any hair present would be collected through combing into a drug-fold piece of paper then sealed in an evidence envelope, labeled, and sent to the lab for comparison against known hairs forcibly extracted from both Billy and Mary.  Since the two lived together, trace evidence such as hair would not provide much weight in terms of evidence but could be collected along with other circumstantial evidence to present together for the jury.  The most effective evidence that could be collected would be semen.  At the hospital, a vaginal examination would have been conducted to swab for semen.  Unfortunately, the abuse was so traumatizing that Mary’s vaginal area had swollen to a degree that medical professionals were unable to access that area of her body immediately.  Several attempts were made until the swab was complete.  Investigators should have also swabbed Mary’s face and hands for the presence of semen upon hearing the details of this crime.  Immediately upon collection into a sexual assault kit, the seminal sample must be delivered to the lab and air dried in a moving air environment before analysis to prevent micro-organism growth from contaminating the evidence.  DNA can be derived from these swabs but in vaginal swabs, the semen mixes with vaginal fluids causing a mixed DNA profile as a result.  There are tests that can separate these profiles being developed for perfection at this time. 

“For example, researchers are now establishing useful markers on the Y chromosome. Such markers do not have as much statistical power as traditional STRs to make unique identifications, as Y sequences are much less diverse between individuals. But because they are found only in males, they are often essential in sexual-assault cases in which forensic samples may contain many times more female DNA than male DNA. “By using something that just targets the male DNA, you can figure out the perpetrator's profile versus the victim's profile,” Butler explains” (Phillips, 2008).

Tests such as this are most effective in a non-sexually active person such as Mary.  The mere presence of semen in Mary’s body, combined with the photographs of a severe rip in her vagina, provide strong evidence of non-consensual sexual activity.  The degree of a DNA match needed for successful prosecution from the semen to the suspect in this case would not be as high as it would in other sexually active, socialized women. 

 

Neither Mary nor Billy contends that there was a third party present at the home that evening.  This is important as investigators examine the bruises left all over Mary’s body.  The defense claims these bruises were caused by Mary doing something to herself in retaliation over a disagreement she had with Billy.  Any noticeable patterns of bruising should be photographed from various angles immediately because bruises quickly fade and the elasticity of skin causes the marks to change from day to day.  Even though this evidence is strictly useful for classification during reconstruction purposes, it does help to exclude certain claims regarding the events that took place that evening.  In most criminal cases, simple bruising is not helpful to investigators.  Yet this is a case where there were only two people present and one came out of it with severe bruising as well as other signs of abuse all over her body.  Therefore, the bruise marks would be analyzed by reviewing the photographs, which have been labeled with both the case number as well as unique identification numbers used with reference to a legend from a sketch of Mary’s entire body showing the location of each bruise.  Experiments can also be utilized as investigators attempt to re-create the marks through various actions until they find a method causing a matching mark to the bruise.  This is not admissible evidence in a criminal court for prosecution to bring charges but is extremely helpful to invalidate a claim made by defense.  For Mary, bruise marks refuted Billy’s claim that he helped her up and the rest were caused by Mary in retaliation simply due to the impossibility of a person creating marks on their own body which match those found on Mary.

 

Initially, investigators could present an interactive map of the home as well as the surrounding area showing the blood stain pattern interpretations.  Utilizing one color for Mary and another for Billy, if any of his blood is present but if no blood is present from him than fresh fingerprint patterns could be used for this purpose, this map would be capable interpreting the data input into the most probable course of movements for both parties throughout that evening.  This evidence would also place Mary in Billy’s bed while bleeding as well as swipe patterns from the home to the shed.  The map produced from this evidence is one of the best methods available to match the story Mary told from the beginning to actual activity that took place that night.  In addition to proving Mary was victimized, blood pattern evidence which specifically supports Mary’s account supports investigators claims that she was mentally coherent, her testimony was reliable and consistent, as well as acts as firm evidence to refute the claims from defense that Mary was hallucinating.  Combining blood pattern evidence with bruise mark interpretation and the fact that there were only two people in that home all evening, investigators would present the most plausible explanation regarding how each bruise was produced by comparing the marks on Mary’s body to matching marks on experimental dummies.  By showing recordings of each experiment that failed along with those which succeeded in producing the matching marks, prosecution can determine that these bruises were caused by another party other than Mary.  Again, there is no evidence or claim of a third party being present so simple deduction leaves Billy as the only person capable of causing such damage to Mary’s body that evening.  Perhaps the most persuasive evidence for prosecution comes from biological fluid collections.  Unfortunately, the vaginal swabs were not useful as evidence in this case because the excessive damage to her vaginal area made it impossible to collect a sample until several attempts had been made and a bit of time had passed.  “The quantity of semen in the vagina will diminish progressively with time, usually as a result of drainage.  The posture and activity of the complainant subsequent to the act is likely to affect this” (Stark, 2000).  However, biological samples collected from the bedding, clothing, and other parts of Mary’s body should have produced results that are consistent with Billy as the perpetrator.  While it was obvious from Mary’s injuries that she was raped, DNA would have been necessary to individualize the offender.  Since Billy was a direct decedent, DNA comparison may have proven more difficult or simpler as both parties have some alleles in common but the difference in generational timeline should provide enough deviation for identification even without a full 13 STR’s for comparison.

 

Forensic science has made an innumerable amount of advancements since China began fingerprinting in the 700’s to DNA profiling in the 1900’s.  Investments made to increase technology, education, as well as other new capabilities in the field of forensics have paid off over time.  This is evident in the case of Miss Mary, a 96 year old woman raped and beaten by her grandson simply because she feared living in a nursing home.  Despite the fact that Mary paid rent in addition to fulfilling the increasing demands placed on her to cook and clean the couple’s home, she would suffer tremendously at the hands of Billy for over a five hour period of time in one evening, alone, told she would die by morning, with little hope for retrieving help.  Mary’s five years of indentured servitude, financial exploitation, neglect, and ultimately the severe physical abuse and sexual assault was finally made evident as investigators utilized forensic science evidence to prove Mary’s claims. 

 

References

Division of State Police, (n.d.).  Forensic Science History. Ney York State Police. Retrieved from:                                               https://www.troopers.ny.gov/Crime_Laboratory_System/History/Forensic_Science_History/

Mulla, S. (2008). There is No Place Like Home: The Body as the Scene of the Crime in Sexual Assault Intervention. Home             Cultures, 5(3), 301-325. Retrieved from EBSCO Host: http://web.a.ebscohost.com.proxy-                                                 library.ashford.edu/ehost/pdfviewer/pdfviewer?sid=69af4760-d3ab-42be-8fef-                                                         814b15845b41%40sessionmgr4001&vid=5&hid=4112

Phillips, M. (2008). Crime Scene Genetics: Transforming Forensic Science through Molecular Technologies. BioScience, Vol.           58, No. 6 (June 2008), pp. 484-489.  Retrieved from JSTOR: doi: 10.1641/B580604

Stark, M. (2000). A Physician's Guide to Clinical Forensic Medicine. Totowa, N.J.: Humana Press. Retrieved from:                           http://web.b.ebscohost.com.proxy-library.ashford.edu/ehost/ebookviewer/ebook/bmxlYmtfXzQyMDA3X19BTg2?               sid=0c5923b3-eb11-4ab9-958a-a10e9b55277e@sessionmgr111&vid=12&format=EB&rid=1

Tobe, Watson, & Daeid, (2007).  Evaluation of Six Presumptive Tests for Blood, Their Specificity, Sensitivity, and Effect on           High Molecular-Weight DNA. Journal of Forensic Sciences  Volume:52  Issue:1. Retrieved from:                                       https://www.ncjrs.gov/App/publications/abstract.aspx?ID=238851

 

Impression Evidence

 

Negative impression evidence, such as the prints left in figure 4.2 and 4.3, are extremely valuable to a criminal investigation.  If collected and preserved carefully, tire and footwear impressions can easily be analyzed for classification of the brand name and model then further analyzed for identifying features.  Depending on the type of case along with the detail left in these impressions for crime scene analysts, this evidence will often narrow the suspect pool down to a single person.  Even with the very limited information provided in the photographs, a forensic analyst would be able to interpret some identifying characteristics. 

 

The first photograph is of only a single tire indentation print in soft receiving material with no other information regarding the type of scene being investigated.  The width, depth, and tread pattern of the tire impression in the photograph provided provide a sufficient number of characteristics to run through the federal database and determine general as well as limited classification including manufacturer, date of market release, pictorial image, and pattern features (Bowen & Schneider, 2007).  In addition to classification factors, though, visible tire impressions like the one photographed in 4.2 can be examined for individualization features such as wear patterns, damage, material defects, and even collection of trace evidence left behind.  Visual inspection of the tire photograph indicates several individualized patterns.  Most obvious, is the area where it seems the vehicle comes to a stop.  As the tire begins to roll there is about a four inch by seven inch area where no pattern is visible.  This is usually caused by balding of the tire but can be resultant of running over something or even a patch or other such material on the ground, if not on the tire, which is thick enough to block such a heavy item from impressing upon the soil.  The photograph also shows that one side of the tire is heavily worn in comparison to the other side of the same tire indicating the vehicle may be out of alignment but more evidence would be required to prove this.   There is obvious overlap in the photograph, seemingly from the same tire in a two point turn, making the task of pinpointing exact locations of any identifying features a bit more difficult.  There are a few nicks in the tread but without further information it is impossible to determine if these are from the make-up of the surface, material defects in the tire mold, or actual damage on the tire from wear and tear.

The second photograph is of a shoe tread; due to the texture of the receiving surface this is considered a plastic indentation, with no other information about the crime scene.  There is no information informing the analyst if these two photographs are from the same crime scene or separate.  Shoes and boots leave impressions such as this which can be used to class the brand and style of the footwear.  Then individualizing patterns can be deciphered through analysis of the shoe size, any defects or damage to the tread, the depth of the pattern, wear patterns caused by the way the person walks, and any trace material found within the tread pattern.  Without more knowledge to link shoes depth patterns with walking styles it is difficult to make any inferences regarding this particular pattern.  Through strict observation it seems that this person places more weight of their heel and the outside of the foot as the depth of the indentation pictured is deeper in those areas.  The shoe in this impression is new enough that there is very little wear to the sole but there are some marks indicative of material defect in the molding which made the shoes sole.  These defects are found toward the toe area in bent out-dent lines as well as incomplete indents to one of the square patterns in the middle front area.  

 

Since impression evidence in such soft material, as what is presented in these photographs, is easily damaged the first step to collect and preserve both the shoe as well as the tire tread is to carefully and fully secure the scene and document everything through notes as well as photograph and video recording.  The tire impression is fairly straight forward for collection and preservation.  In addition to the photograph provided, pictures of the marks will be taken at various 90-degree angles with variations in lighting.  A special emphasis on oblique lighting with photography is needed to alert investigators of disturbed and uneven surfaces within the impressions.  Any disruptions could help investigators reconstruct the crime scene later.   The tire mark’s width needs to be measured, along with the circumference then solid frame is built around the impression for the casting material to be poured into in avoidance of pouring directly onto the impression and risk distortion.  The cast in this situation would be set in dental stone to ensure microscopic detail is captured as well as the overall impression.  While hardening, the case number or item number is scratched into the top side of the hardening dental stone.  Once the cast is completely hardened it is lifted placed in a paper container, sealed, and labeled with a description of item, the police case number or identifier, the date and location of collection, as well as the collector’s name and identifier to establish chain of custody.

The receiving material of the shoe tread is especially soft and pliable making the evidence possibly vulnerable if not cast correctly after the impression has been measured, details documented on notes, any obvious trace evidence is collected such as hairs or fibers, and photographs are taken from various angles with lighting from different angles.  If the sand is as soft as it looks in the image, investigators would utilize silicone-based products to create the positive cast.  However, a dirt and soil hardener could be applied to the surface of the impression making it sturdy enough for dental stone without the difficulties associated with utilizing silicone casting material.  It is important to wait at least forty eight hours after packaging the casting before analyzing it in the lab to ensure it has thoroughly dried.

 

Upon submission to the lab both casts will be run through a federal database, one for shoe imprints and the other for tire tread specifically, to pinpoint classification characteristics for suspect elimination and inclusion purposes.  The database will return results matching the impression characteristics to the manufacturer and model then the analyst will begin examining individualizing characteristics from the impression.  For the tire, this classification information provides the analyst with the type of vehicle, at the least, which can contribute necessary details in efforts to solidify and validate the reconstruction phase of the crime scene investigation.  The amount of help classification information provides is dependent on the type of crime, the location of the crime, and even something as small as the weather at the time of the crime.  This information helps narrow down the suspect pool as it is compared to those owning matching or similar registered vehicles.  Often investigators do not need an exact match and a high frequency of similarity matches is sufficient.  “Measures of similarity will not only allow retrieval…in the investigative phase but will also be useful in the prosecutorial phase. A quantitative similarity measure will allow quantication of uncertainty in presenting evidence in the courtroom” (Shirahi, 2011).  This is also true for the show impression because it is quite plausible for changes to the sole of a shoe or tire tread to occur prior to known sample collection.  Shoe impressions are statistically much more common among the population and often the results of the examination are stored until there are known shoe treads for comparison.  Before doing this, though, exclusionary comparisons will be made against all first responders on the scene to ensure the impression was not accidental.  Analysis of these impressions will provide evidence regarding “where the [primary] crime occurred…the direction a person [or vehicle] may have traveled before, during or after the crime…other crime scenes connected to a perpetrator” (National Forensic Science Technology, n.d.).  In fact, if there is a match in the federal database from either the shoe or the tire impression investigators would have a strong lead on the direction and suspects to follow up with.  The results of this analysis could also provide the probable cause needed to obtain a search warrant by linking the evidence to a person so the results of the search can link the person to the crime.  Even if something as common as a Nike sneaker is revealed through the search that matches the impression, trace evidence collected from the actual shoe could place the individual at the crime scene.  With the collective and frequent use of both databases by law enforcement across the nation, this type of evidence is bypassed by very few types of other evidence placing it in the same category of importance as fingerprints according to many experts in the field. 

 

Since a criminal court will only allow submission of like evidence, the ability to cast impressions provides investigators a great advantage as the cast turns a negative impression into a positive impression which can be directly compared to the actual item in question.  As technology has advanced so has the value of impression evidence from footwear, vehicles, and tools for criminal investigations.  If carefully collected and preserved, tire and footwear impressions can easily be interpreted from classification characteristics into individualizing characteristics, thereby providing validity to a prosecution in such cases.  Even limited information such as what is provided in photograph 4.2 and 4.3 a forensic analyst would be able to interpret enough identifying characteristics to assist an investigation adding more reliability to this type of evidence.  

 

References

Bowen R. & Schneider J., (2007). Forensic Databases: Paint, Shoe Prints, and Beyond. NIJ Journal Issue No. 258.  Retrieved                from: http://www.nij.gov/journals/258/Pages/forensic-databases.aspx

National Forensic Science Technology, (n.d.). NFSTC Science Serving Justice.  Retrieved from: http://www.crime-scene-                    investigator.net/SimplifiedGuideFootwearTireTracks.pdf

Srihari S. (2011). Analysis of Footwear Impression Evidence. U.S. Department of Justice; NCJRS. Retrieved from:                                 https://www.ncjrs.gov/pdffiles1/nij/grants/233981.pdf